Comparing and Applying Theories of Development Essay

Let’s take a look at all three and compare some of their similarities, as well as a few differences and then we can look at how these and other theories are used to analyze and evaluate the development of a child. Sigmund Freud was a pioneer of his field. His Psychoanalytic theory was the first theory of modern psychology. Although some of Freud’s ideas have been discarded, most of them still influence the world of psychology today. According to Freud, human development is shaped by unconscious forces that motivate human behavior (Paplia & Olds, et al, 2006). Our awareness of the world around us is stored in our conscious mind; and our unconscious mind stores painful repressed memories, urges, feelings, or thoughts which is difficult to access. Freud believed that personalities consist of three parts: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id dwells in the unconscious part of our mind and is responsible for our pleasure principle. The superego also dwells mostly in the unconscious mind and is accountable for our knowledge of right and wrong. Accountable for our reality pleasure is our ego, which is located in our conscious mind and is what we use to mediate our deepest selfish desires with the outside world. â€Å"According to Freud, an individual’s behavior is a result of all three interacting with one another, working together as a team under the leadership of the ego. † (Roeckelein, 1998) For instance, when a teenager desires to skip school so they he can party with his friends, his superego tells him that he will get in trouble if he does, so his ego decides to go against skipping school, but makes plans to party with his riends that weekend so that his id is still satisfied. Freud also believed that children go through three different stages of personality development in the first 5-6 years of age called psychosexual stages. In each stage a child’s fulfillment shifts from oral to anal to genitals. If gratification is not achieved in any of these stages, the person will develop a fixation and end s up being stuck in that stage of development like in the case of smokers, whom according to Freud, have an oral fixation. Freud developed the idea that people create defense mechanisms such as displacement (a way in which one diverts their feelings of anger from the person whom caused the emotion to another person or object), compensation (overcoming feelings of inadequacy in one area by excelling at another), or rationalization (looking for suitable explanations to justify our behavior). They use these mechanisms in order to cope with stressful and painful experiences. (Witt & Mossler, 2010) Erik Erickson was an apprentice of Sigmund Freud. He developed the Psychosocial Theory of development. He also believed that the unconscious mind influenced behavior; however, he opposed the sexual aspect of development. According to his theory there are nine stages of human development. Trust vs. mistrust which occurs between birth and about 1 year old. The child must learn to trust his or her parents, but must be balanced with a sensible amount of mistrust so as not to become naive. The virtue learned is hope. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt is the second stage which occurs between the ages of 1-3 years old. Next is initiative vs. guilt which is usually occurs in 3-5 year olds. Children in middle childhood go through the industry vs. nferiority stage which begins around the age of 5 and continues until adolescence around 12 years old; and teenagers fall into the identity vs. confusion stage. Those in the intimacy vs. isolation are young adults between the ages of 18-25. Generativity vs. stagnation is the stage for older adults and is characterized with the desire to give back. Most peo ple in this stage are between 25-65 year olds. Integrity vs. despair, and hope and faith vs. despair are the last two stages of life development, and they both are for those over the age of 65 years old. Each stage is like a test with a potential of passing or failing and the outcome f results is growth and a learned virtue or stagnation. A person will stay stuck in their current stage for however long it takes until the virtue is learned although there are accepted age approximations. (Witt & Mossler, 2010) An example of stagnation is when a woman in her thirties still acts like a teenager. Jean Piaget, a psychologist from Switzerland, also believed in stages of development; however he focused on cognitive development, mostly in children. Although Piaget’s theory has received some criticism, mostly in regards to underestimating the cognitive development of children, he has influenced psychology in a enduring way. Piaget defines operational as a mental routine that transforms information so it can be used. Operational routines include the use of logic by classifying, subdividing, recognizing parts of a whole, counting, and reversibility. † (Witt & Mossler, 2010) According to Piaget, certain behaviors occur only when children reach the appropriate maturational stage and that four of those stages exist: sensorimotor (birth-2 years old), preoperational (2-7 years old), concrete operational thought (7-12 years old), and formal operational thought (12+ years old). In each stage, a child will adapt to a new situation by using an inborn ability (Paplia & Olds, et al, 2006) process in which we integrate new information into a pre-existing mental structure (building blocks of thinking as mental units) called schemes. (Mitchell, P. , 1992. p12) He called this process assimilation. Later if the child learns something new about a previous assimilation experience, the child adds the latest information to the current knowledge, modifying the current mental structure based on experiences. He called this adaption of knowledge accommodation. For instance, when a baby cries, he soon realizes that only his parent’s respond to his cry and not just anyone. There are three key concept similarities between Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory and Erik Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory. First of all, they both fall under the developmental perspective of psychoanalysis, which means that they both view development as shaped by unconscious forces that motivate human behavior. Additionally, they both believed that children go through stages of development and that each stage offers omething to learn in order to grow, or a danger of failure. Lastly, they both agree that when a stage is not mastered, its likely that they will be stuck in that stage of growth by developing a fixation according to Freud, and according to Erickson will be emotionally stagnant. In contrast, here are a few significant differences between Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory and Erik Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory. First o f all, the most noteworthy difference is Erickson’s departure from the sexual emphasis of development that so strongly influences Freud’s point of view. Although he agrees that unconscious mind influences personality development, he believed that heredity and the environment were more influential than sexual urges. Another major disagreement is that Freud believed that the genital stage begins during adolescence and continues throughout adulthood. Adults remain influenced sexually by their urge for genital gratification which is the driving force for all their afflictions compared to Erickson whom believed that human development is continuous, and that people go through four more stages of development after the adolescent stage. Furthermore, Erickson emphasized a possibility for a healthy ego development through the stages. It suggested that people have some control of their development, which unlike Freud, â€Å"believed that people spend their entire lives trying to conquer the demands of the id. † (Witt & Mossler, 2010) There are also a few similarities between Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory and Piaget’s Cognitive Stage Theory. Once again, just like Erickson, Freud and Piaget agreed that development occurs in stages and both of them mostly focus on child development. Another similarity is that they also both have had a major impact on the field of psychology. Freud was the Father of modern psychology while Piaget remains the most influential cognitive psychologist. Also, their theories have both received considerable criticism, but they still continue to influence the world of psychology significantly. On the other hand, there are a number of differences between Psychoanalysis and the Cognitive Stage Theory. The main difference is that they both fall under different developmental psychological perspectives, so they actually view growth and maturity differently. Freud analyzes personality and emotional development; whereas, Piaget examines cognitive development. Another difference is that Freud emphasized sexual urges as the driving force for all humans, but Piaget believed that people were influenced by the current stage of their cognitive develop. Furthermore, Piaget did not recognize the unconscious mind influences that Freud considered. He favored observable, testable measurements in human development. Comparing similarities between Erik Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory and Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Stage Theory is a difficult task. The differences are much more apparent. The reason is because they fall under two separate perspectives in the field of psychology just like comparisons between Freud and Piaget. Nevertheless, a couple of agreements they both had are that heredity and environment are important in human development; and that life development occurs in stages. That is where the similarities end. The most obvious disagreements are parallel to the comparisons between Freud’s and Piaget’s theory. For instance, like Freud, Erickson studies personality and emotional development; while, Piaget tests cognitive development. In addition, Erickson and Freud believed that an immense amount of development is influenced by the unconscious mind, unlike Piaget whom does not validate the significance of the unconscious. The last difference is that Piaget’s theory focused on child development but Erickson’s theory included four more stages of human development which continues throughout adulthood. When analyzing the development of children, we can use the above theories, as well as others to predict the progress of the child, and compare them with other children in their age group. In order to help a child reach full potential, it is important that doctors, parents, and educators know the normal rate of development. This is estimated by using developmental theories, and then applying research based studies that test the accuracy of those theories. As a child grows and learns, an assessment of their abilities can determine what stage of development the child is in, and whether or not they are developing normally. If a child appears to be learning and growing at a slower rate than other children in that current theoretical stage, then ction can be taken to accommodate the child and give them more consideration through different programs that have been constructed for children with learning disabilities. However, if a child appears to be developing at a faster rate, then their gifts can be encouraged and cultivated through the utilization of accelerated enrichment programs. In order to consider a child’s development as correctly as possible, one must consid er all aspects of growth which includes cognitive, physical, and emotional characteristics of maturation. Physical development relates to the growth and maturity of the body and brain which includes the increase in motor skills and brain development. Cognitive development is associated with the progress of logic and reason and increases in vocabulary usage. Emotional development deals with the development of feelings and emotions, but also includes the development of morals and beliefs. Although each category examines distinct types of human development, they are not separate. For example, advances in cognitive abilities have been found to coincide with the child’s physical brain development and growth (like during brain growth spurts). Another instance is that a child’s physical maturity affects his/her emotional well being (like when an adolescent is a late bloomer, it can cause them to have a low self-esteem). As psychologists analyze a child’s development, they must take into account all three aspects of development because of their impact on each other and then apply them to the psychological theories of development in order to properly assess and encourage a child’s possible potential. Sigmund Freud was a patriarch of modern psychology and Jean Piaget remains the most influential cognitive psychologist. Comparisons of the three theories discover that they are all similar in some ways, but also can be vastly different. Although Piaget and Freud have received a considerable amount of criticism for their ideas and parts of their theories were eventually discarded, they both continue to have a significant influence on the world of Psychology today.

Place and Process for the Promotion of Nike Removable Massaging Insole

In Nike Inc. ’s deliberation of where to physically position and place their new product of a sneaker with removable massaging insole, they can focus on making this product available at main flagship outlets and various retail stores across different cities among countries. Nike Inc. can prioritize mainly the various, almost universally-situated retail outlets known as Nike Town, serving as Nike’s premier product outlet amongst district, states, and nations. Such massive and multi-leveled outlets hold the obvious purpose and reputation of holding a comprehensive merchandise and accessory list and availability. Mall retail stores could also provide the product, but only after great discernment and thought. Nike Inc. must learn to build and at the same time keep the anticipation and buzz for this insole technology. Being that the product is of innovative and break-through orientation, many from sport enthusiasts, athletic foot-wear collectors, and even avid Nike accessorized shoe aficionados themselves may have an already heightened anticipation. Nike Inc. hould identify and foresee the sales requirement enough to provide for the demand of the product but not to the unnecessary point of landing clutter inventory at the said profit nests for Nike’s sneaker insole technology sales and distribution channels. Availability should be kept and maintained at either par or above par but should not be overdone in terms of in-store stock supply. With all of these, Nike Inc. must keenly consider a sense of consistency among the availability of the product. In terms of development of a formidable promotion strategy for the pioneering technological feature found exclusively first in Nike footwear, Nike Inc. hould build a series of promotional business activities for better and over-all brand and product awareness that would affix the company specifically as a sports athletic brand committed in spearheading in-detail inventiveness among products for customer satisfaction. Thus, truly giving note-worthy distinction to the brand’s reputation, in terms of product quality, ingenious product ideas, execution and indeed also on product promotion, separate from other players of the athletic shoe market and industry. The selection of promotional tools for a consumer good such as athletic footwear is still rather traditional, but with an originally unique Nike attribute, an edge could be truly utilized, and the creative envelope can be pushed further for endorsement. However, the objectives of the promotion strategy must be concretely identified and should touch as many bases as possible in terms of reaching consumers. As Kotler explains, â€Å"For consumers, objectives include encouraging purchase of larger-sized units, building trial among non-users, and attracting switchers away from competitors’ brands† (Kotler et al. 2006, p. 620). A good and strong sales promotion strategy â€Å"would have short-run sales impact as well as long-run brand equity effects† (Kotler et al. , 2006, p. 620). Nike Inc. must choose the most fitting means, and with such a revolutionary product, a choice of effective methods can be done. Such activities can range from optimization of handing out fr ee trials at outlets for the customer to acquire firsthand experience on the new product. Since the product is the first of its kind, Nike Inc. ust encourage in-store promotions for these help communicate product benefits, in-person, to the customers. Moreover, ensuring product warranties entails confidence in the product and at the same time conveys a sense of accountability in customer relations. And, also realizing cross promotions and holding sponsorships, and building independent programs for events with evidently sporting and athletic themes are other options to be included as part of the sale promotion program. This is where resourcefulness and ingenuity can be stretched. Nike Inc. ust incorporate the value and indispensability of the product in the customers’ lives through a gathered experience via events. In addition, with a strong and justly experienced advertising expertise, Nike Inc. ’s product promotion could have greater impact. Such potent pair-up is confirmed by Kotler and associates as they mention that, â€Å"Sales promotion seems most effective when used together with advertising† (Kotler et al. , 2006, p. 622). In terms of an initial sales promotion schedule, Nike Inc. must capture interest and awareness from the beginning as the product is launched to the market. The series of promotional endeavors at introduction should be broadly well-built and wide-spreading yet calculated. In-store promotions should be consistent in every outlet where the product is available. From the product’s launch until its maturity, customers must be well-informed of Nike’s insole technology even as the promotions gradually change. For approximately four months as the product is introduced, Nike’s sales promotions will be simultaneous and at its strongest, reinforced by an ample advertising campaign and also a comprehensive public relation program implementation.

Blaming Khrushchev for the Cuban Missile Crisis Is Wrong

Blaming khrushchev for the Cuban missile crisis is wrong, for it is kennedy who precipitated the crisis and no one else. Cuban missile crisis does not consist only the placement of missiles in cuba , but also the things before it, cubas nationalization of industries ,like the bop, the embargoes , the soviet giving of aid to ussr, Subject: outbreak / origins of the Cuban missile crisis Focus: role of superpower involvement Timeframe : 1959 to 1962 Keyterms to note: precipitation of crisis Arguments 1. Khrushchev was to be blamed as well as kennedy 2. Only krushchev should be blamed The personalities of who was to be blamed for the Cuban missile crisis can be traced as one looks at the events in th1950s which led to Cubas deteriorating relations with the USA and its subsequent alignment with the USSR, which led to the placement of missiles in Cuba and the consequent tensions that followed. This relations has its origins in the quest for self interest by newly elected leader, Fido Castro, as while as search for national security by both superpowers from the tension passed down from the cold war in Europe ( qualify). Kennedys search for national security precipitated the crisis when his search translated into actions that directly went against Cuba and pushed Cuba away from the US and into support of the USSR. Kennedy failed to consider that Castros intention to establishing diplomatic relations with the USSR was not to antagonize the US or threaten its national security but mostly for economic benefits. ( the US had earlier refused to grant a loan to Cuba and there were continuing disputes over American property in Cuba). This failure to interpret events correctly led US on its intense quest for national security by instituting economic embargoes on Cuba and direct intervention as seen in the Bay of Pigs invasion. However, such actions were needlessly aggressive for its national security was not threatened in the first place. This however caused a deep rift in the US-soviet relations which was an opportunity for USSR to gain a foothold in the Caribbean ; and thus allowed the opportunity for issiles to be placed on Cuba and arising to the tensions that followed. Khrushchev had a part to play in the Cuba missile crisis as well because his action of giving aid to Cuba, a traditional backyard of the USSR, further fuelled the already intense mistrust the US had of the USSR; eventually cumulating in the Cuban missile crisis, leaving Cuba on the edge of brinkmanship. The role of Castro in starting economic reforms directly affecting American industries also contributed to the US suspicions in the crisis. His actions of turning to the USSR for economic aid ( even though he was not communist) also reinforced US perceptions, and his final agreement for missiles to be placed in Cuba (although he knew the implications of doing so) was the ultimate trigger for USs knee-jerk response and the subsequent tensions that followed. Kennedys misinterpretation of Castros actions ( aligning close to the USSR)-as threatening its national security- stemmed from his perception of monolithic communist aggression and the loss of china to communism. communism expousedeventual showdown and triumph over capitalism. Communism has already extended to parts outside Europe such as China, and as such national insecurity has grown; thus the need to safeguard their national security. This misinterpretation of Castros actions , coupled with Kennedys inexperience in dealing with world affairs, caused the US to embark on its quest for national security through economic embargoes on Cuba the initial bay of pigs as a direct intervention . However, such actions were needlessly aggressive for its national security was not threatened in the first place when castros intentions were for economic benefits rather than to deliberately antagonize the US. Furthermore, due to his inexperience,Instead of turning to diplomatic action, kennedy set on the institution of a military solution (With the aim was to oust Castro from power and to reverse the effects of the reforms) caused Castros fear of more direct American intervention ( demonstrated by the case of Guatamalan) and the desire for military protection in anticipation of it and to seek protection from future efforts to unseat his revolution. This further motivated Castros shift to the USSR and his subsequent nationalizing of American owned industries, banks, etc, which created the conditions for the Cuban missile crisis to happen. Castros shift to the USSR directly coincided with Khrushchevs quest for a successful foreign policy and need to address nuclear strategic imbalance. Khrushchevs search for USSRs national security could be traced from the need to spread the Solidarity movement worldwide, to extend communist zeal into Cuba so that there would be countries supporting USSR and its line of communism. his need aroused due to events like the humiliation of the Berlin wall and the failed ultimatum over berlin, where the credibility of krushchev (in narrow terms) and Khrushchev( in broad terms) was lost. Krushchev also believed that it was right for soviets to extend their influence into the backyard of the us since the US has extended their influence in Europe. khrushchevwas aware of the weakness of Soviet weakness in terms of the number of nuclear warheads and missiles. Given the weakness of Soviet nuclear capability , placing missiles on cuba could be a quick solution to addressing the strategic imbalance. Khrushchev also had an overtly simplistic view that he must return the same medicine the us had been administering in turkey with the jupiter and thor missiles. thus his action of sending missiles to Cuba. However, the US did not see developments in the way that the USSR did. The US saw the placement of missiles as a provocative and aggressive threat to US security, given that the Soviet missiles could reach major US cities on the eastern coast. The fact that the US had seen Soviet tendencies to lead to aggression against the capitalists from the soviet testing of the atomic bomb, the collaboration with stalin during the nazi soviet pact, and the confrontational Berlin Blockade led the US to think that not only was Cuba turning communist ( that the USSR had indeed extended her sphere of influence and Cuba was a breeding ground for states hostile to the US, followed by states within Latin america), but the placement of missiles would mean a high probability of a pre-emptive first strike from the USSR . Put together with the fact that any changes with the political status qup (with US as a leading political power) would severely undermine the credibility of kennedy and america, and how the US was not prepared to forsake economic interests in Latin America where western Europe can overcome its dollar shortage and pursue economic revival, atop of its search for national security, the uss response was to choose a quarantine. alsothey to produce plans for an American invasion of Cuba and put all American bases around the world on high alert with the expectation that an American nvasion of cuba would provoke a soviet response in Europe. This equated to the intensification of the nuclear arms race when clearly it was dangerous; and led the countries to be on the edge of mutually assured destruction. as it reached crisis level It threatened the existence of the entire world. While it is undeniable that the issue that kickstarted the intensification of the nuclear arms was the soviet placem ent of missiles in cuba, it should be noted that both superpowers played a part in their quest for national security and self-interest. Kennedys perception of monolithic communist aggression led it to its attempts to try to cripple Cuba to prevent it from posing any threat to the US national security through the institution of actions that were needlessly hostile towards Cuba, causing it to turn to the USSR. This granted the USSR the opportunity to place its missiles there to address nuclear strategic parity and to spread the zeal of communism to safeguard its national security; which was again viewed as aggression by the US. This led to the oncoming of the Cuban missile crisis, where the nuclear arms race threatened the existence of the entire world.

Materiality in Auditing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 12

Materiality in Auditing - Essay Example In the process of audit planning, the auditor takes the decision as to the level of materiality they will use, accounting for the entirety of financial statements that will be audited. This judgment is mainly done on the basis of the nature, size, and specific circumstances of omissions or misstatements that could influence the financial report’s user. Moreover, this judgment is also influenced by public expectations, regulatory requirements, and legislative requirements (Vaujany & Mitev, 2013: p32). This paper seeks to discuss the importance of materiality in the auditing context, as well as to assess the secrecy of materiality levels used by auditors. According to Porter et al (2014: p73), the term material is critically essential in the context of auditing. Materiality definitions in financial reporting are especially critical to auditors, financial statement preparers, and financial statement users. While only two of these stakeholders may be involved in making decisions on materiality, in this case the auditors and the preparers, the definition of materiality in auditing is oriented more towards the user. The user’s judgment of decisions on materiality is central to defining materiality, rather than the judgment of the financial statement preparer. Budescu et al (2012: p24) define materiality as one of the fundamental and essential auditing concept, noting that the Auditing and Assurance Standard-13 on audit materiality establishes the materiality concept’s standards, as well as how it relates with audit risk. A fair and true financial statement and how it is presented will depend on the materiality concept, amon g other things. Keune & Johnstone (2012: p1650) note the relative nature of the materiality concept, arguing that what is material in a specific situation may be immaterial in another circumstance and that consideration and judgment on materiality is a matter for the auditor’s experience and professional judgment. Thus, the

In what ways is it evident that paine and publius were influenced by Essay

In what ways is it evident that paine and publius were influenced by montesquieu and locke - Essay Example Thomas Paine was an English-American political writer who lived between (1737–1809).among his most remarkable publications, Common Sense (1776); Paine argued that the British colonies in America should revolt against the Crown. Paine’s work had great influence on the public during the American Revolution. Thomas Paine and Publius contributed greatly to the revolution of Americans and the world at large. Paine and Publius through their writings among them â€Å"common sense† greatly altered the character and destiny of America and World History (Loughran, 74). Thomas Paine’s ideologies and efforts inspired and brought together the American Revolution. Paine and publius provided the colonists with the fuel to charge their rebellion. Paine’s phrases chorused through colonies and united Americans in a common goal. His oratorical skills and the power of his pen imparted the courage and ideals needed for the founding of a new nation. In his efforts to bring together and direct the colonists, Paine created the phrases – The United State of America, which may have been one of his greatest phrases. The American idea of equality, freedom and human rights that came from Paine’s and Publius’s mind and the philosophies of their predecessors Locke and Montesquieu set the 18th century world on fire. They gave Americans and Europeans the sense, inspiration, and courage to reject outdated social and political structures of the past centuries and the confidence to create new ones that would ensure a better future for humans. People were looking forward to a social order where they could achieve their human potential. Democracy would enable them reach these aspirations they had been holding on to for ages. Paine and Publius changed the format and meaning of Locke’s and Montesquieu’s book of thought. Through this they enhanced the citizens

Change in management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Change in management - Essay Example They will have equal opportunities for progress. They will just have to follow certain procedures and policies designed by the management and I assure you that these policies and procedures will be friendly for the employees. I want to know all the concerns of the employees and I am sure that my policies and procedures will be accommodative. I will only prove to be a strict manager if all the codes and conducts defined by the management are not followed. Discipline is required everywhere to lead a healthy life and to perform all the functions appropriately. You are always welcome to come to me to discuss all your problems. There are certain suitable ways with the help of which, you can perform all organizational functions successfully with less chances of making errors and you have to understand this aspect to work as a successful functional employee of the firm. I will conduct weekly meetings to assess company’s progress along with employees’ progress. For this purpose , a board will be there that will be accountable for bringing forth all the problems and concerns related to work and employees. The employees will be restricted to work according to the company’s set procedures and policies. The employees will have chances to win bonuses and allowances for their work.

Paper #1 (Economic) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Paper #1 (Economic) - Essay Example The price elasticity of demands demonstrates how the demand for a product is affected by a change in its price. A simple mathematical formula which expressed the relationship and provides a way to calculate price elasticity is (% change in quantity / % change in price). There are several factors that can affect demand elasticity. These are availability of substitutes, amount of income available to spend on a good, and time (Investopedia, 2007). A substitute product is an item that might not compete directly with a particular product, but has similar characteristics and can replace the consumption for the original product. For example Pam spray is a substitute product for corn oil. A substitute product is the factor that influences elasticity the most. The higher the amount of substitute products available in the market that can replace a product, the more price sensitive a product becomes. A product with few substitute products that the consumer needs is considered to be in inelastic because changes in the price of the product will not affect the demand for the product that much. â€Å"Caffeine is an inelastic product because it lacks substitutes† (Investopedia, 2007). The level of income a person has is another factor that affects elasticity. A person might want a particular item, but if his economic reality does not allow him to afford the item then he is not considered in the demand equation of a product. The way income affects demand the most can be seen by a person’s consumption of a product he regularly purchases, for example soft drinks. If a person’s income decreases by half the most likely scenario is that this individual will lower his consumption of soft drinks, thus lowering the overall demand for the product. Time can convert an inelastic product such as tobacco into elastic if a person begins to lower his purchase frequency by reducing his consumption of the item over

Response paper to a recent article related to international business Essay

Response paper to a recent article related to international business - Essay Example He was later found dead; an article in the â€Å"Street Wall† describes his death as slow assassination. This is just one among the many adverse challenges that some investors who choose to invest in foreign countries face. In some nations, international businesses, whose home country is America or any other nation that the people in that country have stereotype ideas about often face challenges convincing the law enforcement officers that they are running their business legally according to the laws of that country. Other times it is not necessarily the stereotype ideas, but crude competition strategies by the businesses they met in the area. Some are hit with false acquisitions of corruption, mismanagement and evading taxes. In response to the article investors ought to be extremely selective of the nation they choose to expand their business internationally (Browder 2011). Investors who have had adverse experiences should have the opportunity to air their experiences so as to help other who are looking forward to investing in these foreign investor hostile nations. Many of investors from UK and USA who have had the opportunity to run businesses in Russia, apparently have recorded high levels of un-satisfaction running businesses there. Approximately 21% of them feel that the lack of transparency in Russian business laws and sophisticated hierarchies and legal procedures make it possible for the law enforcement officers to harass them (Meyer, Mudambi & Narula 2011). Russians also tend to rate highly in corruption and some local business owners who feel that these foreigners are a threat liaise with the law enforcement officer to accuse foreign investors falsely of fraud. Of all the complaints these investors raise, the least worrying factors to them are Russian Central Bank Policy, with only 9% complaining about it and corporate culture in Russia, which only about 11% of the investors feel it is a bother. The Russian government, however, insists that i t is doing all it can to improve investor conditions in the country (Hill 2011). Russia is the world second largest oil producer in the world. This is the main economic activity. The government’s plans to diversify to other economic activities are usually challenged since this would lead to the end of the authoritarian governance. This another source of the many challenges foreign investors have to deal with when doing business in Russia. Many complain that the legal and government system, in the country is too bureaucratic, which makes it inefficient to handle the issues these foreign investors face daily. Many complain that for a legal process to go through it takes a long time. For example, the investor in this case had already been deported by the time it was discovered that the allegations against them were a conspiracy plan to get him out of business (Sauvant, Maschek & McAllister 2010). Despite having all these issues the government of Russia seems to be taking steps t owards improving investment environment in the country. The government is encouraging foreign investors to invest in the country with the aim of diversifying and increasing its economic activities. Several earnest foreign investors have set up businesses in the country and have managed to make success stories in the land despite all the

Strategic Marketing Managment Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Strategic Marketing Managment - Case Study Example They have tried their hardest to keep Google away from the shores of book scanning and digitizing to millions of readers worldwide. What their point of view does is to present a gloomy picture of the thinking that the Authors Guild have and how they want to earn from each and every opportunity that comes their way. The basic objection to the digitizing and book scanning aspect is that Google makes use of these excerpts on its web pages which are filled with advertisements thus accounting to huge returns on the part of Google in the form of advertising revenues and marketing shares. There seems to be no other way than to adopt the advertising bandwagon since Google is a public domain in the present times more than anything else and any and everybody can copy, view and scan whatsoever he or she wants for their reading pleasure (Author Unknown 2005). The search engine does its best to make the texts, which can range from parodies to excerpts of the various books, presentable to all and sundry and it is only with the naivety attached with this thinking perspective of the Authors Guild that the project seems to hit the doldrums. Moving further ahead, the Authors Guild raises the point that Google is infringing the copyright laws whereby it has gone a step ahead of its competitors like Yahoo and the like and presented the books in a scanned mode (Brumfield 2005). What the Authors Guild forgets is the fact that it is for the betterment of the readers themselves – for whom the books are written in the first place. The Authors Guild is basically opposed to the Google Print Library Project which has the basic functioning of scanning nearly all parts of a particular book which has been taken from the libraries of University of Michigan, Stanford University, Harvard University, Oxford University and the New York Public Library (Author Unknown 2005). These texts are easily searchable courtesy the Google search engine and thus the intended users (readers) can easily g o through the contents of the books on view. The aspect of advertisements on these web pages where the texts are made available through the search corridor is something that raises quite a few eye brows on the part of the Authors Guild and thus they come up with the faintest of lawsuits which asks to prohibit the searchable capacity of these books through the help and facilitation of Google. The President of the Authors Guild, Nick Taylor suggests that this perspective alone presented by Google is a clear cut violation of the copyright laws and hence the searchable capacity made available on the part of Google should be taken away as far as Google is concerned (Kuchinskas 2005). The Google authorities are rightfully pointing out the benefits that the general viewers (readers) of these books would indeed have and not only that but also the sale of these books would increase as a result, an aspect which could draw huge revenues for the authors who have penned down these books. Somehow or the other, they seem to forget this very vital aspect. As a business entity, Google extracts money and in more business like terms, the revenue from allocating space in the form of banners, buttons and hyperlinks to advertisers at rates which are not only cost effective but also aim at bulk deals (Mills 2005). With this, Google gives them an opportunity to come back and invest more and more with the help of ads since they (advertisers) believe that they get the best possible

The Efficacy of non-invasive ventilation in the acute exacerbation of Research Paper

The Efficacy of non-invasive ventilation in the acute exacerbation of COPD Patient - Research Paper Example Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease best known as COPD, is actually a group of lung diseases that together block airflow to the lungs making it hard to breathe. The two most common diseases that constitute this disease are chronic bronchitis, inflammation of the bronchial tract mucosal lining, and emphysema, gradual destruction of the alveoli at the end of the bronchioles (Huang and Ghio et al., 2012). These may also be accompanied by asthma. Chronic bronchitis causes coughing and sputum production, which may scar and damage the airways. Alveoli damage by emphysema reduce oxygen uptake thus causing breathing problems for the patient. The combination of the destruction these two diseases cause irreversible damage to the pulmonary system, but the good thing is that there is treatment available that can help reduce the symptoms of the disease. One of them is through non invasive ventilation, otherwise known as NIV in short. This paper will be looking at this form of therapy and its ef ficiency in the treatment of COPD. It will discuss its use and advantages it the clinical setting. Being a pulmonary disease, its symptoms are generally ignored or just taken in passing for something else. COPD can cause breathlessness/dyspnea, coughing, excessive production of mucus/phlegm and fatigue. Some of these symptoms, breathlessness and fatigue, are hard to point out or see because they are sensations that are experienced by the patient and do not manifest physically (Barnes, 2009). Only the person experiencing the symptom can describe them and talk about how badly they make them feel as opposed to the production of sputum and coughing which manifest physically. Unfortunately, once these symptoms, among others begin to manifest the patient may discard them as simply smoker’s cough or fatigue from being unfit. These are to be considered as signs

Enhancing IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networks Essay Example for Free

Enhancing IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networks Essay Abstract   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The IEEE 802.11 standard for wireless network is a very important standard especially today that wireless technologies are very popular due to its effectiveness and usefulness. However, the standard supports the use of omni-directional antenna which radiates and receives signals in all directions that does not support spatial reuse and does not have high capacity and gain. Research studies show the benefits and advantages of using directional antennas instead of omni-directional antenna in wireless networks. Spatial reuse and high capacity are both very important especially today that the wireless networks are increasingly deployed due to the demand and needs of the users. But, as mentioned, IEEE 802.11 supports the utilisation of omni-directional antenna and not of directional antenna, thus to be able for directional antenna to be at its optimal use, the IEEE 802.11 protocols must be amended to be able to address problems associated with the use of directional antenna. Directional antenna or directivity of an antenna can be created using antenna elements that are combined to form an array. Smart antennas which are becoming popular today have achieved directivity due to the techniques employs with it. Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Due to technological development in data and telecommunications during the past years, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) of the United States developed standards and guidelines to ensure orderly transfer of information between two or more data communication systems using different equipment with different needs. Standards and protocols are useful in ensuring that equipments such as computers, mobile phones, and communication devices from different manufacturers and providers have established compatibility and interoperability.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, due to rapid technological development and introduction of newer technologies brought about by the increasing demands and needs of users, some standards are needed to be enhanced and improved. This is because as newer technologies are created, more and more data are needed to be transmitted requiring more capacity for the existing infrastructures. If standards and protocols are not improved, existing communication infrastructures will only have limited capacity causing serious problems such as interference and slow speed. People nowadays always demand for real-time communication of various data such as video, audio, pictures and multimedia. Background   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the most innovative technologies today has been the wireless communication technology. Wireless technology encompasses the use of television and radio, mobile phones, wireless internet connection and computing system which are all very important for communication needs, eliminating the need for cables and wires and making possible the communication even in the remotest areas as along as there is available signal. WLANs increased the degree of mobility which are not possible using the conventional local area networks. In mobile phone communication alone, development has been tremendous that from analogue to GSM, now comes the 3G and 4G mobile systems. In the internet technology, connections have developed from ISDN to dial-up to DSL and now Wireless LAN which is very popular today. Communication between computers and mobile phones are also now possible with the GPRS technology.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   These technologies are primarily intended for easy and real-time communication brought about by fast-paced lifestyle of people and also because of globalization. Mobile data and communications have become important for personal, professional, and business use. Because there are so many manufacturers and service providers from different locations, and also because of the popularity of these technologies, the IEEE developed the IEEE 802.11 which is a standard particularly intended for Wireless Local Area Networks. However, as WLAN experienced development and are improved, the IEEE 802.11 is also needed to be enhanced to be able for WLANs to be at their optimum performance. Additionally, because of the many uses and demands for WLAN, it has been increasing deployed causing interference between transmissions. Interference in data communications is a serious problem for it caused delay of transmission and alterations or distortion of signals that caused unreliable, unclear and error in messages received. The use of directional antenna is a well known method to reduce interference and to increase the range and capacity of wireless networks (Zhu et al, 2005). However, the IEEE 802.11 is not designed for the use of directional antennas. This project which is focused on the enhancement of the IEEE 802.11 using directional antennas and multiple receivers is important to be able to determine in-depth what improvement and advantages can directional antennas and multi-receivers can contribute to the current IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networks standard. Literature Review   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This part of this proposal reviews literatures that describe the IEEE 802.11 WLAN standard in details to be able to determine the needs for the enhancement of the standard. The literature review also provides earlier research about the functions and advantages of directional antennas This review is a brief discussion providing an overview of the detailed review of literatures that will be provided in the chapters of the research study. 3.1. The IEEE 802.11 Wireless Network Standard   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Aside from promoting interoperability, the IEEE 802.11 standard for wireless network was created to deliver services that were previously found only in wired networks but have been found out to be possible using wireless networks; to achieve high throughput; for highly reliable data delivery; and for continuous network connection (Ergen, 2002). As a standard, the IEEE 802.11 established the network architecture, components, type of equipments and set of services offered that must be complied with by wireless network administrators and providers. These are also known as the physical layer and that IEEE 802.11 WLAN standard provides a number of physical layer options in terms of data rates, modulation types and spreading spectrum techniques (Ergen, 2002). This means that the medium, the path that the signal transmitted and received via the WLAN, the range, location, frequency to be used and the type of antenna to be used are all determined by the IEEE 802.11 standard. IEEE 802.11 does not only specify the physical layer characteristics but also the link layer protocol for medium access in broadcast channels (Dham, 2003). The medium access control protocol is designed for the specified physical layer characteristics thus any changes made in the physical layer also requires significant alterations in the MAC protocol.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The MAC layer of the standard defines two different access modes: the Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) and the Point Coordination Function (PCF) (Xu Saadawi, 2003). DCF is a mechanism which is a Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance. The standard allows the use of a basic access method or an optional handshake which is done by exchanging Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to Send (CTS) messages which are also the frame sent from the source to the destination and an acknowledgement from the destination that the frame was received correctly (Erger, 2005). These frames or control packets contain the proposed duration of data transmission while nodes or stations within the vicinity of communicating nodes overhear either of these control packets and suspend transmission for this proposed duration (Choudhury et al, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This process unable the nodes or devices to communicate directly with all other devices and for a wireless device to be able to transmit and receive at the same time thus the IEEE 802.11 MAC implements a network allocation vector (NAV) which is a value that indicates to a station the amount of time that remains before the medium becomes available (Erger, 2005).   With this standard, directional antenna is obviously not utilised because in using directional antennas, it is possible to carry out multiple transmissions in the same neighbourhood provided that the beamwidth of the directional transmissions is not very large (Choudhury et al, 2002). 3.2. The Directional Antenna   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   An antenna is one or more electrical conductors of a specific length that transmits radio waves generated by a transmitter or that collects radio waves at the receiver (Frenzel, 1994). It is a basic component of every wireless networks, thus it must be chosen carefully depending on how it will be used. WLAN commonly used omni-directional antenna which allows for transmission and reception of messages in any direction (Frenzel, 1994) which is commonly used in wireless internet connections and wireless telecommunications. However, because the transmitted signal is exposed in any direction, interference with other signal has been a problem. In search for the solution with the problem of interference, various research (Dham, 2003; Zhu et al, 2005; Choudhury et al, 2002) have been focused on the use of directional antenna in WLANs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The primary advantage of directional antenna is that it eliminates interference from other signals being received from all directions except the direction of the desired signal (Frenzel, 1994). It was found out that the use of directional antenna for transmission gives the highest capacity, allows spectrum reuse, and provides range extension (Zhu et al, 2005). At the receiver, the antenna is pointed directly at the station to be received thus rejecting signals from transmitters in all other directions (Frenzel, 1994).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another advantage of directional antenna over omni-directional is that there is greater efficiency of power transmission while when omni-directional antenna is used at the transmitter side the transmitted power goes off in all directions wasting a significant amount of power (Frenzel, 1994). It is argued that all messages should be sent in directional mode to take advantage of this gain (Zhu et al, 2005). Choudhury et al (2002) conducted a study and proposed a protocol that exploits the benefits of using directional antenna namely spatial reuse and higher transmission range. On the other hand, the use of directional antenna also poses some problems such as higher collision probability. That is, as space is segmented and the carrier is reused with directional antennas, the amount of MAC information required for conflict-free transmission increases (Zhu et al, 2005). Because the current IEEE 802.11 standard does not support spatial reuse, several problems may occur when directional antennas are used without changing the modifying the existing protocol. Collision occurs due to the deafness of the nodes as these nodes are immersed in only one direction. And because of this deafness, the transmitting nodes will send RTS packets repeatedly which is a waste of bandwidth (Zhu et al, 2005). The research study conducted by Zhu et al (2005) focused on solving the problems caused by the spatial reuse which is higher collision probability and proposed a protocol called sectorised 802.11 MAC protocol. These two studies along with the other studies serve as the framework of this research. To create an antenna with directivity and gain, two or more antenna elements are combined to form what is known as an array (Frenzel, 1994). Antenna array has the capability of spatial signal separation and could radiate frequency energy towards a desired receiver with narrow beamwidth and null towards an interfering terminal to reduce the negative impact of multi-path and co-channel interference (Zhou, 2006). Phased array antenna systems are an example of an array. Phased array antennas consist of an array of antenna elements connected by a feeder or adder network arranged so that their individual signals combine to provide maximum gain in one direction while minimising it in other directions (Dham, 2003). There is also what is called smart antenna which is consist of multiple antenna elements arranged in a special configuration and connected through complex weights (Zhou, 2006). Smart antenna Switched beam and adaptive array antenna are the two major categories of smart antenna. Switched beam is the simplest smart antenna with a number of fixed beams in predetermined directions at the antenna site (Zhou, 2006). Adaptive array on the other hand uses a complex signal processing algorithm to continuously detect multi-path and interference among desired signal (Zhou, 2006). The studies about the applications of smart antennas in wireless networks are also related and will be useful in the completion of this research study.   Zhou (2006) added that a smart antenna can be applied to all current major wireless protocols and industrial standards to achieve higher system capacity, larger network coverage and higher data rate thus smart antenna must be further investigated to determine what it can contribute to the enhancement of IEEE 802.11 with directional antennas. Aims and Objectives   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In conducting any research, it is important that definite sets of objectives are present.   These objectives will serve as the researcher’s guide in conducting the data gathering, data analysis and conclusion formulation. The primary objective of the research is to provide a protocol designed for the utilisation of directional antennas in wireless local area networks. Such protocol is proposed to be used in the deployment of WLAN using directional antennas thus it includes some amendments on the original standards, architecture, and physical layer. However, this general aim is an umbrella objective that would dictate the general path that the research will take. Within this umbrella objective are the specific aims of the research that will allow the researcher to touch the important aspects of the topic. These specific aims are the following: To identify the problems associated with the current protocols to determine the necessary adjustments or enhancement that are needed to be done; To determine the characteristics of directional antennas and what it can contribute to improve the capabilities of the wireless local area networks; To evaluate the advantages of having multiple receivers in wireless local area networks; To investigate on the differences of the current protocol and the proposed protocol and determine the limitations of the latter; and To test the effectiveness of the proposed standard. Intellectual Challenge   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The most intellectual challenge on this research is the proposal itself. The IEEE 802.11 is developed by reliable engineers and to propose an enhancement for this standard is a big challenge thus the research study should be based on reliable data. The proposed protocol should also be tested on using a prototype and accurate calculations to ensure that the outcome of the studies is viable. Research Program 6.1 Research Methodology The method of collecting data for the dissertation will be composed of two methodologies. The first methodology is review of related literature or secondary sources.   Reviewing earlier studies and other related literature would allow the researcher to become familiar with the already accepted theories and statements pertaining to the topic. The sources should be from technical books, journals, earlier theses and published articles technical organisations such as the IEEE. The second methodology would be surveys and personal interviews. Technical professionals like engineers and technicians from different communication network companies and Internet service providers (ISP) will be surveyed using questionnaires that include questions that will determine the problems encountered with WLAN particularly with the use of the antennas they currently utilise, the solutions they are implementing and the improvement they would like to suggest and impose with the current standards. It is important that the views of these people be collected since they are the ones who are immersed in the realities of the WLAN conditions. They will be able to provide insights that will help the researcher in evaluating the current IEEE standard. This study will be using the descriptive research method where the general part of the paper will be dedicated to the description of the subject in question. Descriptive research intends to present facts concerning the nature and status of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study (Creswell, 1994). It is also concerned with relationships and practices that exist, beliefs and processes that are ongoing, effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing. In addition, such approach tries to describe present conditions, events or systems based on the impressions or reactions of the respondents of the research (Creswell, 1994). The use of the descriptive method also suggests that the research will be focusing on obtaining qualitative data. Qualitative research is an umbrella that refers to various research traditions and strategies. The research will be carried out systematically. First, the researcher needs to review previous literature about the topic. This will allow the research the researcher to become familiar with what is already known about the topic. This will also allow the researcher to formulate the appropriate questionnaire that will be able to extract the most useful data. After the questionnaires have been completed, the researcher will have to tally the results and compare it with the findings of previous studies. If the finding of the research is the same as the findings of previous studies then the research can be supported by the findings of previous studies. On the other hand, if the findings of the research do not agree with past studies then the researcher must look back on previous studies to check if the findings of the studies are supported by other findings. This will ensure that the results of the research are not isolated and have been tested by other researches. 6.2 Schedule The Gantt chart below shows the schedule of activities involved in conducting the research study. Activity Date 1st Month 2nd Month 3rd Month 4th Month Data Gathering/Survey, Personal Interview             Review of earlier studies and related literature/ Analysis of data collected             Writing of the First Draft             Development, Testing, Analysis, Evaluation and Documentation             Revision of the study             Formulation of the conclusion             Completion of Writing             Printing and binding of documents             Submission                Deliverables   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The research study will be organised as follows: A chapter describing the IEEE 802.11 A chapter describing the antenna used in WLAN and the problems using non-directional antennas A chapter describing the analysis of the problems A chapter that presents the data collected and the analyses of those data A chapter for the proposed solutions and the methods for testing the solutions A chapter that serves as documentations of the testing, calculations involved and evaluation of the proposed solutions Resources   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As already mentioned, this research study is highly technical nature thus resources must be from reliable sources such as the IEEE itself that developed the standard that will be enhanced and the Association for Computing Machinery which is an organisation that publishes reliable sources about computing and related technology. ACM also has a digital library where various literatures can be accessed. The World Wide Web is also be used as a source where different latest articles and journals can be found. University and public libraries will also be used where books that discuss the basic concepts of the subject and topics involved can be found. The researcher will need the cooperation of technical professionals, technicians and engineers whose personal knowledge will be needed as they answer the survey questionnaires. The researcher will also need to collaborate with an ISP or a network company to test the proposed standard, determining its effectiveness as well as its shortcomings. References: Choudhury, R., Yang, X., Ramanathan, R., and Vaidya, N. (2002) Using Directional Antennas for Medium Access Control in Ad Hoc Networks, MOBICOM’02, ACM: Georgia, USA Creswell, J.W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Dham, Vikram (2003) Link Establishment in Ad Hoc Networks Using Smart Antennas Thesis in Master of Science in Electrical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University retrieved online on December 13, 2006 http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-05072003-180228/unrestricted/etd.pdf Erger, Mustafa (2002) IEEE 802.11 Tutorial, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of California Berkeley, Retrieved online on Dec. 13, 2006   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/~ergen/docs/ieee.pdf Frenzel, Louis (1994) Communication Electronics 2nd edition, Glencoe Macmillan/McGraw-Hill: Singapore Xu, Shugong Saadawi, Tarek (2003) Does IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol Work Well in Multi-hop Wireless Ad Hoc Networks? Dept. of Electrical Engineering, City University of New York retrieved online on December 13, 2006   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://academic.csuohio.edu/yuc/mobile03/0415-xu.pdf   Zhu, Chenxi, Nadeem, Tamer and Agre, Jonathan (2005) Enhancing 802.11 Wireless Networks with Directional Antenna and Multiple Receivers, Fujitsu Laboratories of America, retrieved online on December 13, 2006 http://www.flacp.fujitsulabs.com/TM-PCR-TM-21.pdf Zhou, Hao (2006) The Improvements in Ad Hoc Routing and Network Performance with Directional Antennas, Department of Electrical and Communications Engineering, Helsinki University of Technology, Retrieved online on December 13, 2006   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://lib.tkk.fi/Dipl/2006/urn007316.pdf

Ireland Social Housing History and Evolution

Ireland Social Housing History and Evolution I. List of tables and Figures Table 1 Number of Private Families in Occupation of Tenements of One-Room (1911-1936) Table 2 Characteristics of Tenure among Irish Households Table 3 List of The top 10 AHBs by size Table 4 Vacancy rate by type and region in 2011 Table 5 2015-2017 Residential units minimum requirement Table 6 Additional HAP and RAS Units (2015-2020) Figure 1 Provision of Local Authority Housing 2007-2014 Figure 2 Breakdown of Social Housing Support in Ireland (Number of Units) Figure 3 House completions II. Abbreviations RAS Rental Accommodation scheme HAP Housing Assistance Payment AHBs Approved Housing Bodies CAS Capital Assistance Scheme PAA Payment and Availability Agreement CALF The Capital Advanced Lending Facility NESDO National Economic Social Development office The development of the Irish housing system from the iconic period of the 1840s to the 1970s, when a new era of development began in Ireland, laid the foundations for the system today. (CHAPTER 2. 2011, p.54). This literature review outlines the evolution of social housing in Ireland from the beginning to the present day. It comprises of seven parts. Part 1 provides a brief history of tenements in Dublin; Slum clearance and Dublins corporation housing schemes; ownership. Part 2 examines the Social housing providers in Ireland. Part 3 Funding for social housing. Part 5 analyzes Social housing Supply and Demand; Part 6 is about Social Housing Need; Part 7 describes what the sources of social housing supply in Ireland are. 2.1 Tenement life. Slums The origin of tenements in Dublin may be tracked back as far as the sixteenth century when the population probably did not exceed sixty thousand.'(Kearns, K.C.2006) Â   Â   The vast majority of the Irish population lived in rural areas. Great famine and industrialization in urban areas had led to a growth in slum housing due to increased population, as well as poor sanitation and the spread of disease. (Chapter 2. 2011). Between 1841 and 1900 Irelands population declined but Dublins increased from 236,000 to 290,000. Dublins slums were the worst in all of Europe for nearly 150 years. Between 1900 and 1938 there were over six thousand tenement houses in Dublin occupied by over one hundred thousand tenement dwellers. Those people had occupied spacious Georgian houses abandoned by their original owners who left into newly-built suburbs. House prices dropped and went into the hands of landlords who tried to fit houses with as many residents as they could. Dwellings that had once been single-family homes were increasingly divided into multiple living spaces to accommodate this growing population. It was a logical solution for the citys lower classes who were simply seeking space to sleep in and shelter. (Kearns, K.C.2006). Tenement dwellings were overcrowded, some areas had 800 people to the acre. In one house lived as many as a hundred persons. Accordingly, in a single tiny room lived fifteen to twenty family members. (Kearns, Kevin C.2006).Table 1 demonstrates how many people lived in a one room tenements. (Census of Population. 1936). Despite the fact that Dublins overall density was 38.5 persons per acre the density statistics were astonishingly high as for example: Inns Quay 103, Rotunda 113, Mountjoy 127, and Wood Quay 138. Massive population was concentrated in close-knit communities around the Liberties, dockland and Northside. Table 1Source: Census of Population 1936 The living conditions were hellish. The buildings were not properly maintained and therefore were decayed, dangerous, and sometimes collapsed, killing occupants. The greatest deterioration and decay that buildings suffered was the second half of the nineteenth century. Those tenement districts were known as slumlands. (Kearns, K.C.2006). The slums along Church Street, Beresford Street, Cumberland Street, Railway Street, Gardiner Street, and Corporation Street and on Marys Lane were particularly appalling. The worst tenement slums around Liberties were on the Coombe and Francis Street, Cork Street, Chamber Street, and Kevin Street. (Kearns, K.C.2006, p.8). Maintenance and repair of the buildings was very expensive, so only the remaining wealthy Georgian house residents were able to do so because residents had no financial resources to keep buildings in a prime form. As a result over 60,000 people were in need of re-housing. There was a critical housing shortage. Dublins slums existed until 1940s. (Kearns, K.C.2006) 2.2 Slum clearance and Dublins corporation housing schemes The first nationwide system of welfare was formed on The Poor Relief (Ireland) Act 1838. Unfortunately system was not able to manage such huge levels of poverty and homelessness. (Meghen. 1955, p.44) In the end of 19th century there were a lot of various schemes, and legislation acts such as Public Health Act 1848, Artisans and Laborers Dwellings Act 1875, Housing of the Working Classes Act 1890, etc.; Charitable trusts, Philanthropic trusts, Guinness Trust, Sutton Housing Trust and many others that had to provide affordable and good quality social housing and also housing for the working classes. (Chapter 2. 2011, p.21-25). Despite all efforts the housing shortages were growing and by the 1914 tenement housing situation was so desperate that a real solution was needed without delay. (Kearns, K.C.2006). First intentions to promote slum clearance was not successful due to high cost of slum sites and re-housing of households. (Chapter 2. 2011). Only with the creation of the 1913 Housing Bill and the 1932 Housing Act did attention focus on financing slum clearance schemes and the provision of local authority housing for the lower-income classes. For the first time local authorities were empowered to deal directly with the slum problem in a systematic way. Unfit properties could be officially condemned and acquired compulsorily to be renovated or demolished. (Kearns, K.C.2006, p.21). During the 1940s and 1950s the Corporation has set a target that was a part of slum clearance program, to build four and five-story blocks of flats across the city center. Also at the same time, new housing development projects have been implemented in Cabra, Ballyfermot, Crumlin, Glasnevin, Donnycarney and Marino. (Kearns, K.C.2006, p.21). According to the Kennys Report (1973) the Irish population had increased from 1,229,000 in 1961 to 1,556,000 in 1971. Migration and economic growth increased need for housing and White Paper (1969) estimated that 15-17,000 houses would be required by the mid-1970s annually. 2.3 Ownership In the nearly 20th century only 20% of all Irish population were the owners of their houses and the rest 90% have rented their accommodation. (Sirr L. 2014). Home ownership quelled agitation for three reasons: having improved living conditions removed a primary cause of protest and discontent; a regular income was needed in order to maintain the newly owned home in respectable manner, which implied the requirement to be in work; and home owners were less likely to strike or protest due to fact that they now had something to lose-their homes. (Sirr L. 2014. p3). There was a various sales and taxation schemes that encouraged and facilitated Home ownership. (Sirr L. 2014). Over the number of years Ireland become as a nation of home owners. (Goodbody. 2015, p.15). However there are new generation of renters, not forced, but wanting to rent for personal and professional reasons, and the private rented sector is now replete with people who choose to rent, not because they couldnt get a mortgage but because they do not want to own a property. (Sirr L. 2014. p6). The table 2 below shows the number of renters increased during decade. Goodbody states that in 2011, there were 29% of households rent, with 18.5% of those in the private sector. (2015) Table 2Source: Goodbody 2015 More people are now renting, while people on lowest incomes are squeezed out of the relatively small rental market and are at greater risk of homelessness. (Irish Times, 8 Oct, 2015) In 2011 the National Economic and Social Council stated that the main future providers of new social housing will be the housing associations. (2014). There are three main providers of social housing accommodation in Ireland: Local authorities are the largest providers of social housing that dominate for nearly 120 years and controlled approximately 137,000 dwellings in 2014. The provision of social housing units by local authorities which is evident from Figure 1. Figure 1Source: Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government Approved Housing Bodies (AHBs). There are some 500 in Ireland that manage approximately 27,000 homes. Until 2011 AHBs were 100% funded by government under Capital Assistance Scheme (CAS). The top 10 are listed by size in the table 3 below. Table 3Source: Housing Agency, 2014 Private rental sector provides accommodation for 74,000 households supported by Rent Supplement. (Environment, Community and Local Government. 2014). The breakdown of housing support in Ireland is demonstrated in a Figure 2. Figure 2Source: The Social Housing Strategy 2020 According to Social housing newsletter published in 2012 there are the main grant funding schemes in Ireland: Local authority acquisition/construction program. By this programme local authorities buy or construct new housing units. Government provides 100% capital grant. Capital Assistance Scheme (CAS). Operates since 1984. Funding up to 100%. Scheme is for AHBs that provide housing for people with specific needs i.e. elderly, homeless people, and people with disabilities. Payment and Availability Agreement (PAA). This programme is designed to assist Approved Housing Bodies that make their properties available for use as social housing for around 30 years. Capital Advance Leasing Facility (CALF) Provides a long-term government loan for a 25 year period with a simple fixed interest rate of 2% per annum. Established in 2011. The Housing Finance Agency Provides loan to local authorities and AHBs social housing and other housing-related purposes. Established in 1982. Commercial lenders. Some interest in lending to the sector with a maximum duration of 7-10 years have shown Bank of Ireland, Allied Irish Bank and Ulster Bank. (Fund Structuring Services Final Report, 2014) The Social Housing Leasing Initiative Launched in 2009. Properties are leased from private property owners. The purpose is to provide accommodation to those on social housing waiting lists. The Capital Advanced Lending Facility (CALF). This is along-term government loan, when 30 per cent of the total funding required is covered by government, and balance is covered from a financial institution. Introduced in 2011 and is for term of between 10 and 30 years. 5.1 Demand Demand for housing will continue to increase. According to new figures from the Housing Agency homes that were built in Dublin last year only met half of the demand. Irelands population increased by 30% in the last 20 years. At the moment approximately 4.6 million people live in a country. It is the highest population for 150 years. An increasing population and a declining household size will both increase demand for housing units. (2015). National Economic Social Development office (NESDO) defines the factors that stimulate housing demand: Economic growth; Demographic developments; Patterns of income distribution; The level and distribution of wealth; The cost and availability of finance; Fiscal policy; The level of housing stock. According to Goodbodys research, to meet demand the housing supply needs to increase. (2015) 5.2 Supply The Irish housing market experienced an oversupply due to an overbuilding in the 2000s boom years. As a result 11.5% of the housing stock was vacant in 2011. But at the same time there was significant supply shortages in Dublin standing at 5%. (Goodbody. 2015). Table 4 demonstrates vacancy rate by type and region in 2011. Table 4Source: Goodbody 2015 In recent years demand for social housing has been rising due to increased population. Table 5 below outlines that almost 21,000 additional residential units are required to be supplied each year over the next three years to meet demand. Table 5Source: Housing Agency. Outlook for 2015-17 Factors that may affect the slow supply: Construction sector capacity; The scale of price declines; Funding; Planning; Building regulations; There are now 100,000 people on the social housing waiting list. Government announced recently that it will supply 35,000 additional housing units over the next six years as part of its Social Housing Strategy. In 2014 Irish housing completions grew by 33% to 11,000 units (Goodbody. 2015) as the figure 3 shows below: Figure 3Source: Goodbody 2015 The Irish housing market has changed radically in recent years and the existing framework underpinning the supply and funding of social housing supports is no longer adequate to address housing need.'(Coffey, 2004). The Environment, Community and Local Government (2014) excludes six main groups in the Housing Needs Assessment: Renting with Rent Supplement (47%) Renting without Rent Supplement (26%) Living with Parents (18%) Emergency Accommodation for Homeless People (2%) People with Disability (4%) It is estimated that c.40% of households in the private rental sector are in receipt of some form of government support. (Goodbody. 2015, p.16). 7.1 Sources of social housing supply in Ireland: Rent Supplement was started in 1970s as a short-term housing or welfare support. (Sirr L. 2014, p.79). It has played a central role in the expansion of the private rented sectorp31 and has become increasingly important for low-income tenants. (Sirr L. 2014, p.31). Rent Supplement is paid to people who are jobless and whose main income comes from social welfare payments. In other words it is payable for those who cannot provide accommodation from their own resources. People who are in full-time employment cannot claim Rent Supplement. (Sirr L. 2014, p.80) Rental Accommodation Scheme (RAS) was established in 2004 for those who were getting Rent Supplement for long time (eighteen months or longer). If Social housing was not available, they were accommodated in a private rented dwellings which were leased by local government for four to ten years. (Sirr L. 2014p31). Contracts were drawn up between Local authorities and Landlords to provide housing for people with a long-term housing need. Rent is between 88 and 92 per cent of the market rent and is paid directly to the landlord. (Citizens information, 2012). Housing Assistance Payment (HAP) is a new social housing support that replaced Rent Supplement introduced in 2014. Rent is directly paid to the Landlord by Local authority. (Citizens information, 2015). Table 6 outlines the number of households that are expected to be accommodated directly under HAP and RAS during 2015-2020. Table 6Source: Environment, Community and Local Government (2014) Social Housing Strategy 2020 Minister for the Environment, Community and Local Government Alan Kelly said that Working together, and through combining public, voluntary and private investment, we can provide our growing population with the required level of quality, affordable homes. (2014) The strategy responds robustly to that challenge by providing a roadmap that will accommodate 90,000 households, the entire Housing Waiting List, by 2020. (Coffey, 2004). It has a new vision to provide an access to secure, good quality and affordable housing every household in Ireland. Over a period of six years should be provided 35,000 new social housing units, also 75,000 households should be supported through the private rental sector. (Environment, Community and Local Government. The Social Housing Strategy 2020: Support, Supply and Report. 2014). Environment, Community and Local Government states that their plans should be delivered during two phases: Phase 1, building on Budget 2015, sets a target of 18,000 additional housing units and 32,000 HAP/RAS units by end 2017. Phase 2 sets a target of 17,000 additional housing units and 43,000 HAP/RAS units by end 2020.'(2014). Census of Population, (1936), [Online]. Available: http://www.cso.ie/en/media/csoie/census/census1936results/volume1/C,1936,Vol,1.pdf [Accessed 6th October 2015]. Chapter 2, (2011) Outline of the Development of the Irish Housing System [Online]. Available: http://www.nuigalway.ie/media/housinglawrightsandpolicy/Chapter-2-Outline-of-the-Development-of-the-Irish-Housing-System-Housing-Law,-Rights-and-Policy.pdf [Accessed 6th October 2015]. Citizens information (2012) Rental Accommodation Scheme [Online]. Available: http://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/housing/local_authority_and_social_housing/rental_accommodation_scheme.html [Accessed 7th October 2015]. Coffey, P TD Minister of State Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government (2014). In Environment, Community and Local Government. The Social Housing Strategy 2020: Support, Supply and Report. [Online]. Available: http://www.environ.ie/en/PublicationsDocuments/FileDownLoad,39622,en.pdf [Accessed 30th September]. Environment, Community and Local Government (2014). The Social Housing Strategy 2020: Support, Supply and Report. [Online]. Available: http://www.environ.ie/en/PublicationsDocuments/FileDownLoad,39622,en.pdf [Accessed 30th September]. European Investment Bank (2014) Final Report for the Department of Public Expenditure and Reform: Social Housing and Energy Efficiency in Ireland. Fund Structuring Services. [Online] Available: http://per.gov.ie/wp-content/uploads/EIB-Report-on-Financial-Instruments-and-Social-Housing.pdf.[Accessed 3rd October 2015]. Goodbody (2015) Irish Housing Market: A detailed analysis. [Online] Available: http://www.finfacts.ie/biz10/Irish%20Housing%E2%80%93Goodbody_via_Finfacts.pdf [Accessed 28 September 2015]. Housing Agency (2015) National Statement of Housing Supply and Demand 2014 and Outlook for 2015-17. Housing Agency, Dublin. Kearns, K. C. (2006) Dublin Tenement Life: An Oral History of the Dublin Slums. Gill Macmillan Ltd. Kelly. A TD Minister for the Environment, Community and Local Government (2014). In Environment, Community and Local Government. The Social Housing Strategy 2020: Support, Supply and Report. [Online]. Available: http://www.environ.ie/en/PublicationsDocuments/FileDownLoad,39622,en.pdf [Accessed 30th September]. Kenny J. 1973 Committee on the Price of Building, Dublin Lorcan, S (2014) Renting in Ireland: The Social, Voluntary and Private Sectors Meghen, P.G (2011) Building the Workhouses, In Chapter 2, Outline of the Development of the Irish Housing System[Online]. Available: http://www.nuigalway.ie/media/housinglawrightsandpolicy/Chapter-2-Outline-of-the-Development-of-the-Irish-Housing-System-Housing-Law,-Rights-and-Policy.pdf [Accessed 5th October 2015]. National Economic Social Development office, Housing in Ireland: Performance and Policy Background Analysis. The demand for housing in Ireland. [Online] Available: http://files.nesc.ie/nesc_background_papers/NESC_112_bg_3.pdf. [Accessed 5th October 2015]. Norris, M. (2014) Policy drivers of the retreat and revival of private renting: Regulation, finance, taxes and subsidies. In Lorcan, S. Renting in Ireland: The Social, Voluntary and Private Sectors OConnor, N (2015) Housing crisis: Ireland needs five to 10 new Ballymun as soon as possible. Irish Times, 8th October Redmond. D (2014) The private rented sector and rent supplement: The emergence and development of social housing. In Lorcan. S. Renting in Ireland:The Social, Voluntary and Private Sectors The Irish Council for Social Housing (2012) Social Housing Newsletter: Budget 2012 Report. Impact on Social Housing [online] Available: http://www.icsh.ie/sites/default/files/attach/publication/385/socialhousing-winter2011.pdf [Accessed 1st October 2015] White Paper (2011) Housing Progress and Prospects. In Chapter 2 Outline of the Development of the Irish Housing System [Online]. Available: http://www.nuigalway.ie/media/housinglawrightsandpolicy/Chapter-2-Outline-of-the-Development-of-the-Irish-Housing-System-Housing-Law,-Rights-and-Policy.pdf [Accessed 6th October 2015].

Living At The Crossroads Book Review Religion Essay

Living At The Crossroads Book Review Religion Essay The book Living at the Crossroads, by Michael W. Goheen and Craig B. Bartholomew, provides insight into how to live a Christian life at a time in which the Christian worldview has been challenged by the tenets of what is called post-modernism. In this book, the term worldview is used to describe a belief system. That is, what an individual or group of individuals believes as to how and why the world functions, and what the goals of the worlds existence should be. In this way, the worldview of a social community is the way in which this group of people characteristically look outward upon the universe. Worldview is linked especially to the way people in a particular society, such as Christian society; see themselves in relation to God, humanity and the rest of the universe. Although there are different worldviews in our society today, the Christian worldview has come under increasing social pressure to change. This book provides Christians with a path towards understanding their role in society and to help us live faithfully as Christians at the crossroads. Despite our place at the crossroads, Goheen and Bartholomew also demonstrate that Christians need to be able to remember their roots in faith. The role of the Lord Jesus Christ is to reclaim the whole world as His kingdom. This means that our faith in salvation can result in the restoration of the whole of Gods good creation on earth, and His works in Heaven. Goheen and Bartholomew tell their readers that the Gospel as it is recorded in Scripture can been seen to be as broad as creation. Since the gospel is about Gods rule over all of creation, all nations, and all of human life, therefore the mission of Jesus followers is also as wide as creation itself. We as Christians have therefore been engaged as witnesses to the gospel in all of public life business, economics, scholarship, politics, family, criminal justice, art, media and every corner of human experience throughout the world. The challenge, however, is that there are forces working against this role for Christians in our society today. Post-modernism, according to Goheen and Bartholomew, is a term used often in our society today. It is linked to the idea that relative truth is the prevailing issue of the day. Post-modernism says that moral and religions truth do not exist in any objective sense, that individual persons are the product of their cultures, and that we must, as a global society, reject any overarching explanation of what constitutes truth and reality. This means that the Bible should no longer be used as a guide for living our lives as Christians because of the fact that there are other people and cultures which prove that God could mean something different than what we believe. Because of this threat, God has commanded His people to organize themselves into distinct visible communities. The purpose is for giving visibility to His great Kingdom, making known the Gospel of that kingdom, and of gathering all His elect subjects. Each one of these distinctive organized communities are faithful to God represents an integral part of the visible church, and all together constitutes the universal visible church. As a whole, we need to understand our mission. To achieve this goal, we also need to become aware of our own assumptions as Christians by reflecting on three parts of knowing the Bible, namely (1) giving summary expression to the grand story; (2) lifting out the fundamental beliefs of that story; (3) articulating and explicating those beliefs. This is what worldview reflection is concerned to do (Goheen and Bartholomew 26). By doing so, Goheen and Bartholomew state that this formula can be applied to their two narratives, the Biblical story and the Western story. This means that by looking at the story of humanity seen through the eyes of Christianity, and also seen through the eyes of Western culture, we can begin to understand what is happening at the crossroads. In understanding the differences between these two points of view, we can act to protect the Christian faith from a hostile worldview over the long term. Goheen and Bartholomew make three distinctions between the Christian and the Western worldviews. The first distinction is that the Christian worldview is at first religious, while the Western worldview is linked to what is called rational thought. The idea of rationalism is linked to systems theory, in that there is a focus on evolution and the ways in which human society has changed over time. The Renaissances secular humanism and the shift to a focus on science during the Enlightenment period acted to split apart the connection between the gospel and humanism. Over time, this led to a conversion of Western society from a faith in the church to a faith in reason, in that Western society believed that the world would be bettered through science and reason. The second distinction between the Christian and the Western worldviews is that the Christian worldview is first a story, not a system. A Christian worldview demonstrates that there is a deeper meaning that can be reached through faith. As Goheen and Bartholomew write, It certainly is true that Jesus death is for us, but this is too narrow a version of the truth.  In the biblical drama Jesus dies for the whole world, for every part of human life, for the whole nonhuman creation. The cross is an event whereby the course of cosmic history is settled (56).  This means that instead of focusing on the structure of society and the possibility of whether or not there is a God, like the Western worldview, the Christian worldview allows the faithful to discover meaning in life through the narrative of the Bible and its teachings. The third distinction between the Christian and the Western worldviews is that the Christian worldview is first embodied, and then articulated, according to Goheen and Bartholomew. What this means is that we, as Christians, must first live a life of God before moving towards ministry. On an individual level in our walk with Christ, there really is only one goal: to be Christ-like. Ministry is only born out of our love for Christ and our desire to be transformed into His image. If there were no love for Christ, we would have nothing to give and would not have the staying power to finish the race. God is the Creator and Maker of all things and he so desires to manifest Himself and demonstrate how much he really loves us. As well, He is revealing Himself in new, fresh and exciting ways in these days we live in where we are presented with the challenges of living at the crossroads. It is only after understanding these ideas, however, that we as Christians can come together to articulate the work of God as a community. Overall, this means that, as Goheen and Bartholomew note, the very core of human life is religious. This means that not only is we as human beings dependent on and related to God, but that our lives should incorporate a constant response to God and His will for humanity. It is not difficult to figure out how to accomplish this task. Goheen and Bartholomew write that the Gospel is the message of the kingdomà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The good news that Jesus announces and enacts, and that the church is commissioned to embody and make known, is the Gospel of the kingdom. We make a grave mistake if we ignore this, the central image of Jesus proclamation and ministry (2). Through the Gospel, we can work our way towards salvation, which is the way that God will be able to reclaim His creation, namely the community of Christian faithful. In this way, Goheen and Bartholomew demonstrate that those who do not serve God are in fact idolatrous. Western culture, with its focus on consumerism and post-structuralism, suffers from idolatry because of the fact that these people serve a leader other than God. Over the last fifty years, the development of consumerism via new methods of advertising, media, and cultural shifts has had an increasing impact on our society, and especially on those most vulnerable to influence, children. We are bombarded with images throughout the day, from television and Internet advertising to billboards and radio spots. We are encouraged to association consumption with cultural events and holidays that were formerly Christian holy days of prayer and contemplation. This intersection of consumer media in our lives has changed the ways in which we see the world, but it has also had a definitive impact on our personal habits and our spiritual health, which is why it is important to show the difference between the Western culture focus on consumer goods and the Christian focus on Gods law. These changes in our global society have led to a shift towards an unhealthy move away from the message of God. This means that we, as Christians, cannot allow those living under the Western culture have the final say on the agenda and interests of Christians today. Because of the fact that we are called to be faithful to God, we need to focus on Gods word rather than that of those who live outside of the Christian faith. At the same time, Goheen and Bartholomew write that faithfulness to the Gospel can be very costly and that suffering can come to be the result of a missionary encounter with the idolatrous powers of society as whole. The move towards what is known as secular and rationalistic humanism in Europe and other northern regions of the world has only led to the dilution and destruction of Christianity. For this reason, the only way to ensure that Christianity is maintained is through faithfulness to the Gospel. One of the most significant things that is pointed out by Goheen and Bartholomew is that the shift towards post-modernism and idolatry within traditionally Christian communities in Europe and other northern regions of the world has allowed for the rise of Islam. Part of the reason for this shift is due to the fact that Islam offers people a deep sense of community where religion and way of life are connected. Law is fundamentally important to the Muslim people and their community governance because it is treated as a way of being, rather than a legal or religious structure that is separate from other aspects of life and the Quran is its defining symbol of identity. As such, evaluation of and adherence to Islamic law has shaped the political, economic and social standards of Islamic Empires throughout history. The scope of Islam has changed because of the necessity of protecting its followers right to practice the religion, and therefore the concept of uniting and increasing Muslim te rritory through Jihad, which is mentioned as the only acceptable form of warfare. In doing so, the Islamic world forced the home of Christianity to Rome, thus essentially Europeanizing the Christian faith. This was a massive social shift, and signalled a new face of power within Europe and Asia. At the present day, this shift is beginning to be felt on a larger scale. In order for Islamic communities to thrive and get along, they follow common rules by which they have agreed to operate, based on religious tradition alone. As noted by Goheen and Bartholomew, the Islamic political and legal system is seen as inseparable from other aspects of life, and it gives a world-view, a vision, and a set of values, and leaves enough room to work out details for different situations under the guidance of its religious leaders. The challenge is that Islam is becoming stronger because it has developed a culturalist reaction against Western cultural values. The Muslim viewpoint of the West is that it is against its own collectivist worldview, because in Western culture, individuals care nothing for those around them, and seek only for self-gratification. At the same time, Western culture is also perceived to be imposing its worldview on other societies, such as Islamic countries. The West is , in this way, linked to the idea of protecting the survival of the fittest, while Islam is linked to the idea of protecting the interests of its internal religious community. For these reasons, Goheen and Bartholomew note that there needs to be a Christian empathy for the way in which Islam is responding to the individualist approach of Western communities. Islamic regions of the world are turning to fundamentalist practices as a way in which to balance out economic and social challenges between themselves and Western culture, and in this way restore order and justice to their communities. The fundamental challenge in the conflict between Muslim and Western thought is therefore not so much who people are and what they believe in, but what they are perceived to be and what they represent for each other on a cultural basis. In this way, Goheen and Bartholomew suggest that Christians need to be aware of these social dynamics on a global basis, and find our own way of challenging the force of secularism which is damaging our culture. In this way, the resurgence of Islam becomes a prophetic challenge to Christians to recover the full dimensions of their faith (Goheen and Bartholomew 124). In the end, we, as Christians, need to follow the recommendations of Goheen and Bartholomew in order to develop a comprehensive approach to cultural engagement. First, we need to be able to recognize that because Jesus Christ is Creator and Redeemer of all things, our collective Christian approach to salvation can be both restorative and comprehensive. In moving toward a kingdom of God, the Church is called to witness to this comprehensive salvation. The Gospel is, in this way, the only means of transforming human life for the better. If we do not work towards these goals in this way, Goheen and Bartholomew warn Christians that we will become a minority community in the world. Although, in remaining faithful, we may experience some degree of conflict and suffering as a community, we must understand that this will allow for restoration though Gods love. Our mission is linked to that of God and the Lord Jesus Christ. Goheen and Bartholomew demonstrate that in order to complete this mission, we also need to make its goals clear to our young people who want to profess their faith through education. We must also incorporate our faith into every act or work that we do, through our professions. This may be challenging because of the fact that, in the Western culture in which we live, the word of God may call forth opposition, conflict, and rejection. At the same time, this approach will ensure that God and his faithful will be able to work towards on the final day when the Lord returns in glory to help us all realize our eternal life with Him.